In his 1964 paper, Hamilton noted abstractly that, “the behaviour of a post-reproductive animal may be expected to be entirely altruistic.”34 After all, once the vehicle that genes inhabit can’t transmit them to the next generation, they are well advised to direct all energies toward vehicles that can. But the question of innate human goodness casts a political shadow that can’t be so casually disregarded, for linkage between ideology and views on human nature has a long and distinguished history. “I should not send this very shamefully stupid letter,” he wrote, “only I am very anxious to get some crumbs of information about yourself & the insects.” He sometimes reminded Fox of “how long I have been hoping in vain to receive a letter from my old master” and enjoined him to “remember I am your pupil. This pattern of support for the downtrodden — populism, we call it — had also been employed by Yeroen. And, besides, each person is born into a family that occupies a particular niche in the social ecology, and each person has particular social assets and liabilities. It is the statistical consequence of a compromise made by each individual in its competition for food, mates, and other resources. Some great help in keeping Darwin’s marriage strong were: The invention of photos and the proliferation of pictures and videos of young women can make men feel like the environment is more abundant in women than it actually is, and push them into a shorter term, no investment strategy. They see the conflict as a clash among competing advocacy groups, designed by evolution to yield sound guidance, much as the tension among branches of government is designed to yield good governance. But there is one problem with this supposed generality: sometimes painful memories are the very hardest to forget. hut do dear Emma, remember life is short, and two months is the sixth part of the year. And if, as is often the case, we don’t know for sure which theories are right and which are wrong, our best bet is to go with the ones that seem most likely to be right. And although Malinowski’s account of this issue seems to have the ring of authority, there is no way of knowing whether he got the story straight. If it is harder now to find a grounding for assertions about basic moral values, then, presumably, the fewer and the simpler the foundational assertions, the better. It is conceivable that the postmodern attitude has already drawn some strength from the new Darwinian paradigm. STATUS, SELF-ESTEEM, AND BIOCHEMISTRY Beneath the behavioral parallels between human and nonhuman primates lie biochemical parallels. That, of course, is a central reason why reciprocal altruism paid off inside the computer. “The idea of a disinterested defense of one’s conduct” grew out of self-interest, “but in the thought of reasoning beings, it takes on a logic of its own which leads to its extension beyond the bounds of group.” This extension has grown impressively. He says that as it could be expected of Victorian England, Darwin pushed towards and early marriage while she was more willing to put it off. Men often spent their twenties as Darwin did — singlemindedly pursuing the sort of professional stature (and/or money) that might later attract a woman in her prime. It’s also true that this distinction was closely linked to the Madonna-whore dichotomy. Now, some aspects of Darwin’s distinctively strong scruples presumably had to do with distinctive genes. Though Charles Dickens did manage, amid great controversy and at real social cost leave his wife, he forever confined contact with his mistress to secret meetings. Yet however classic this generational conflict may seem, it features a couple of distinctive ironies. The support may be more complex and diffuse as well. If so, does it explain, as well, why pride and ambition, for example, seem to reach greater heights in men, on average, than in women? A mother’s discontent seems not to translate into breakup as naturally as a father’s. The idea that natural selection, acutely attentive to the most subtle elements of design in the lowliest animals, should build huge, exquisitely pliable brains and not make them highly sensitive to environmental cues regarding sex, status, and various other things known to figure centrally in our reproductive prospects — that idea is literally incredible. My Note: there’s some element of truth here, but it’s equally easy to piss off the other party and make the deal fall through. Young men who kill get respect — at least within the circle of young men whose opinions they care about. And it realizes this goal with a subtle series of lures that can begin, say, with the mere contemplation of extramarital sex and then grow steadily more powerful and ultimately inexorable. It may not be hard to teach children to share with brothers and sisters (at least in some circumstances), but it is hard to teach them to share equally, for this runs against their genetic interest. It is necessary that help provided to others be occasionally reciprocated if it is to be favored by natural selection. In chapter 8 of The Moral Animal Robert Wright talks about groups and the differences among cultures. But that still leaves two-thirds traceable to environment. For example, natural selection “wants” men to have sex with an endless series of women. The Hindu scriptures teach that a single universal soul resides in everyone; the wise man “sees himself in all and all in him.”29 As a metaphor for a great philosophical truth — the equal sacredness (read: utilitarian worth) of every human sphere of consciousness — this leaching is profound. Maybe you will wind up with more grandchildren if you have two children, both of whom you can afford to educate at expensive private schools, than if you have five children who get educated at cheaper schools and find themselves unable to support children themselves. But Mill’s real complaint wasn’t about strong moral codes; it was about strong and mindless moral codes. So that we can ideally come clean before we get caught. sepultor . This may seem obvious. It’s a measure of how much male in a certain specie invest in their offspring. I have heard it said that the success of a work abroad is the best test of its enduring value. They are free to opt out of moral discourse, and out of any obligations, and benefits, that the resulting code might bring. Emma was a year older than he and, though not unattractive (at least in the eyes of her portrait painter), was not thought beautiful. There has been much talk about the problem of unwed motherhood among teenagers, especially poor teenagers. Interestingly enough, Darwin gave plenty of credits to smaller researchers who could never take his crown or share stage with him. In Darwinian terms, a young stepchild is an obstacle to fitness, a drain on resources. Darwin lavished credit on scores of minor-league researchers, while diminishing the few predecessors who might have been even remote contenders for his crown; he thus incurred the debt of many young, rising scientists, while risking the offense mainly of the old and the dead. And husband A, if he’s not drawing flirtatious looks from young women, may feel more content with wife A, and less inclined to notice her wrinkles. . How, then, did ape brains turn into human brains in a few million years? Given such prospects, a woman’s genes would be well served by her early and careful scrutiny of a man’s likely devotion. Periodic homosexual behavior, such as genital rubbings between females, seems to be a way of saying, “Let’s be friends.” Still, broadly speaking, the bonobos’ sociosexual outline mirrors that of the common chimpanzees: a pronounced male hierarchy that helps determine access to females.37 Amid the great variety of social structure in these species, the basic theme of this chapter stands out, at least in minimal form: males seem very eager for sex and work hard to find it; females work less hard. To call Darwin’s humility tactically sound isn’t to call it disingenuous. But top high-quality men who can get many women are better off with polygamy of course. (Indeed, the spurning has been known to disappear when the alpha isn’t looking. The organism must be able to tell its neighbors apart, and to feel a healthy fear of the ones that have brutalized it, but it needn’t grasp the logic behind the fear. Indeed, whatever contribution the double standard may have once made to marital stability by offering a vent for male lust, times have changed. In any event, the airing of grievances can lead to widespread reactions that function as collective sanctions, and this has come to be a vital part of moral systems. This was an essential message of George Williams’s 1966 book, a message that had barely begun to take hold when Morris’s book appeared. Chemists and physicists test a theory with carefully controlled experiments that either work as predicted, corroborating the theory, or don’t. Back Cover: “A brilliant and troubling attempt to look into who we really are. Darwin believed different peoples have different rules because, for their own historical reasons, they judge different norms to be in the interest of the community. The intellectual grounding of Victorian sexual morality was explicit: women and men are inherently different, most importantly in the libido department. Thus, the logic seems irresistible: betray your partner. He opened his first notebook on “transmutation of Species” in June or July of 1837, and his second in early 1838.22 By the time he was rigorously mulling marriage, he had gone some of the way toward natural selection. And one of the more viable is the Madonna-whore dichotomy. When Darwin confided his theory in a select few, employing his trademark defensiveness (to Asa Gray: “I know that this will make you despise me”),51 he was probably driven as much by emotion as by reason. It’s a commonplace of social psychology that cred ibility grows with prestige. Half of all brothers and sisters, for example, can be assumed to possess the gene (unless they’re halfsiblings, in which case the fraction is a still nontrivial one-fourth). And, for that matter, various people had long had the feeling that gain through pain was nature’s way. Our current monogamy is not monogamy anymore though, Wright says, but it’s serial monogamy. And in marriage, an unmarketable commodity — male or female — is often a contented one, with little if any sexual restlessness. Thus, Freud’s model of the human mind may have been — believe it or not — insufficiently labyrinthine. Darwin recalled making up stories for “the pure pleasure of exciting attention & surprise.” On the one hand, “these lies, when not detected, I presume excited my attention [and] by having produced great effect on my mind, gave pleasure, like a tragedy.”23 On the other hand, at times they left him feeling shameful. Darwin sees that it is the prestige of his allies, not just their number, that will shape public opinion.

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